A Review: Production of Particulate Matter As Pollutant During Cement Manufacturing In India, Its Impact on Health And Environment

A Review: Production of Particulate Matter As Pollutant During Cement Manufacturing In India, Its Impact on Health And Environment

1Madhurima Chatterjee, 1Kanchan Mala

1School of Forensic Sciences LNJN NICFS, National Forensic Sciences University Delhi Campus, Sector-3, Rohini, New Delhi, 110085, India

Abstract: Having over 7% of the global installed capacity India has secured the second position among the cement producers worldwide. The increase of the cement industry and greater consumption of cement is significant of the development, growth and progress of the nation in terms of increase in GDP (Gross Domestic Product). The manufacturing of various types of cement involves several steps like quarrying, drilling, blasting, hauling, milling, preparation of fuel, calcination, clinkerization, production, packaging and transportation. Surprisingly, at every step a certain amount of particulate matter is released into the environment along with the other gaseous pollutants. Toxic elements like Ar, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, Si and ions like nitrate, sulphate, and calcium ion are found in these emissions. The nature of the particulate matter however depends on the raw materials used. The particle size distribution and elemental composition of the particulate matter determines the extent of the impact on humans, animals, plants and the environment as a whole. Studies have shown drastic deterioration in the health of the workers and other people near the cement plants in the form of pathogenesis of lung diseases. Nevertheless, the production and use of cement cannot be stopped. However, these dangers need to be pointed out and studied further to find ways of reducing them. The review article deals with the process of cement manufacturing, release of harmful particulates into the environment, health implications as consequence and pollution, followed by resolutions.

1. INTRODUCTION

   Cement is considered as one of the fundamental building materials to develop infrastructure, mainly used to make concrete or mortar and as binding agent. Cement production and consumption is an integral part of any nations economy, also due to abundance of its raw materials geographically, cement is produced nearly in all countries. [1]. In urban world, the standard of living is greatly upgraded by the contribution from the cement industry, offering 1 ton of concrete per human being per year [2]. Holding second position as cement producer in world, Indian cement industry is considered as the oldest sector in India recruiting almost 1 million people of the country [3,4]. India witnessed a stable growth during the commencement of the planning period with an increase of 3.28 million tonnes in cement production capacity [5].

   In last two decades, a robust demand in the development of cement industry is seen, as the consumption of cement has peaked a certain level in various infrastructural industries [5]. According to Kumar et. al., a hike upto a level of 67% in the housing industry, 13% in the infrastructure. 9%

   in the industrial construction and 11% for commercial buildings, proving to be a boon for the people [5, Indian Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF)] With an annual increase of about 5%, the construction industry accounts for about 8% towards the nations Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as per the year 2021-22 [5]. It is not far when India would be the top most cement producer in the world with its large scale ongoing and proposed government construction strategies like Housing for all, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, (PMAY), smart city initiative programs, housing projects, ports, roads, flyover, metro projects, etc. [5]. All these projects are catalyzing the demand for the cement sector in India. Undoubtedly, Cement industry significantly supports Indian economy and infrastructure [6]. The major contributors of particulate matter in India are construction activities, road dust, waste burning, vehicles, diesel Generator sets (DGS), industries and domestics [7]. One of the greatest and potential anthropogenic source of air pollution is the cement industry [8].

   An important factor for large scale cement manufacturing in India is the availability of raw materials like limestone, clay, sand, coal etc. [8,12]. Large quarries of limestone deposits rich in calcium, silica, alumina, iron and low content of magnesium oxide (MgO) is best suited for cement industry [4]. Obtainability and chemical composition of theses raw materials determines the type of cement.

   The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has categorized industries by different colour codes according to the Pollution Index (PI) value. The industry wise PI is calculated as a function of its utilization of natural resources, discharge of emissions, effluents and hazardous waste materials into the environment. PI score of 60 and above falls under the red category, 41 59 under orange category, 21-40 under green category and upto 20 is under white category [ 13]. Thus, the CPCB categorizes the cement industry under the red category and one of the 17 most pollution causing industry in the world. [4,6]

   Being such a major sector, cement industry is quite beneficial for Indian economy however comes along with many challenges in terms of potential pollutants [2, 14, 15]. Various studies show that cement production emits a lot of air pollution such as carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hot water, chlorides, fluorides, heavy metals, traces of organic compounds and particulate matter in two ways

   exhaust during the process and waste left after the process [2, 6-11, 14 -21]. All these contaminants have significant impact on the environment and that can be linked to an array of health concerns [7,14, 15, 21]. Discharge of untreated hazardous wastes from the production plants cause a threat to the soil quality, vegetation and nearby water resources by direct discharge of waste into it or surface run off. Presence of metals in it can be really harmful to the lifeforms inhabiting the land and water. In addition, all the heavy machineries used in the production process create noise pollution like gas dynamic noise, mechanical noise and electromagnetic noise [15]. Outcomes can also be seen in the form of foul smells released during the on-goings. Each of these have severe physiological and anatomical effects on the people living nearby and the workers [14, 15].

   However, the massive outcome of the cement industry is measured in terms of the air pollution it causes. Carbon dioxide being the most potent air pollutant is released during calcination and clinkerization, predominantly surge the greenhouse effects several folds [ 22, 15]. Due to combustion activities involved during kiln and drying, oxides of Sulphur and nitrogen are also introduced to the environment [15]. Incomplete combustion of fuel, stored chemicals and gasoline release another class of chemicals called Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) which react with atmospheric gases to form ground level ozone having perilous impacts in the form of smog. [15].

   The particulate matters are one of the greatest pollutants released from the cement industry which is generated in one or the other form in every step of cement production. The harm of it can be traced to the life taking impacts seen in the workers and the areas nearby as discussed later. The particulates of different sizes ranging from 0.05 to

   5.00 m in diameter emitted from the cement industry have severe health implications which can be traced to the poor health conditions of the people exposed to it directly or indirectly. [2, 14,16, 17-20,23].

   According to te World Air Quality Report 2020, 22 Indian cities were found among the 30 most polluted cities in the world [7]. The safe limit recommended by World Health Organization (WHO) for air pollution has been crossed by Indian cities by about 500% [7]. This data draws our attention towards India, the 5th most polluted country of the world according to the PM2.5 pollution following the WHO report 2019 [ 7].

   This review article intends to highlight the impact on health and environment of particulate matter as pollutant produced during cement production in India.

2. DISCUSSION

   1. PROCESS OF CEMENT PRODUCTION:

      Among limestone, marble, marl, shell, alkali waste, blast furnace slag, limestone is the most important and commonly used raw material because of high calcium carbonate content [1, 7]. A limestone rich land is obtained

      through a geological search, close to which the cement plant is built. Quarrying and excavating of the mines is done by various blasting techniques [ 24]. Subsequently, the extracts are crushed to gravel sizes 1.5m, 150mm and 100mm further ground to a size of 90 micron or less and sent for homogenization in the blending silos [24]. The output formed henceforth is a homogenous mixture called the raw meal prepared by mixing clay, sand and other chemicals as per the cement requirement [7,22, 24, 25].

      The crude substances used for cement production, are worked upon by mechanical processes like mining, quarrying, crushing and grinding to generate raw meal of standard consistency. Then, fed into the rotary kiln where increase in temperature is achieved due to its systematical rotatory motion. This leads to calcination followed by clinkerization of the raw meal. Cooling down of the clinker takes place to remove the excess heat succeeded by mixing additives like, gypsum, to customize the property of cement. The final cement thus becomes ready to be milled, stored, bagged and transport [6,8, 9, 26].

      Depending on the moisture content, there are three processes of cement manufacturing before the raw material can be fed into the kiln; the dry process, semi dry/ semi wet process and the wet process.

      Dry-process – The raw material is dried using drum dryers, impact dryers, autogenous mills etc. during or before the grinding. [6]

      Semi-dry/ semi-wet process- pellets of cement are made by adding water to the raw material using special devices [6].

      Wet process- a slurry consistency is prepared by adding water to the raw material. Increased consumption of fuel takes place to remove the extra water making this technique unsuitable for use [6,22, 23].

      In wet kilns, without dust control technology, the diameter of 24% and 7% of the emitted particles was found to be lesser than 10 and 2.5 m, respectively and in case of the dry process plants, the diameter of 42% and 18% of the emitted particles was found to be lesser than 10 and 2.5 m, respectively. [23, 26]. However, in both the cases, dust control technology, 85% of the total escaping particles were less than 10 m in diameter and for the dry process using bag houses, 45% of the escaping particles had a diameter of less than 2.5m [23]. Conclusively, the particulate matter is released during all the three processes of cement production. Exposure to the particulate matter destroys the lungs by penetrating it and can also interfere with the regular process by entering the blood vessels. It can also enhance risks of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases [27]. The review covers all the health implications of particulate matter in next segment.

      Additionally, during the process, an exhaust air is passed through the pulverized materials which lead to the formation of an intimately scattered composition of gases like carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, Volatile

      Organic compounds (VOCs) and potentially harmful particulates matters (PM) [2, 6,7,15,21, 23, 28]. The quantity of emission however depends upon the type of raw material and process used. All these generated adulterants enter into the environment and affect the life of living entities [21]. Thus, cement production is one of the pollutant industries.

   2. PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) EMISSION:

      Particulate matter can be defined as a fusion of particles which can be solid in nature and aerosol (liquid droplets). Some examples of PM are dust, soot, carbon particles, fly ash, bottom ash, slag, black filter dust, smoke, fume, flue gases, dolochar, scraps, etc. [8, 29]. Based on the aerodynamic diameter, PM can be classified into three types; coarse particle, fine particle and ultrafine particle. PM of aerodynamic diameter less than 10m (2.5-10m) falls under the coarse particle category and is designated as PM10 [30]. PM of aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5m(0.1-2.5m) is considered as fine particle, designated by PM2.5 [30]. The ultrafine particles are those of aerodynamic diameter less than 0.1m represented as PM0.1. The different size of particles can enter upto different levels in the human body. PM10 particles are filtered out in the proximal airway causing slight irritation in skin only [8, 30]. PM2.5 particles enters into the peripheral airways owing to its smaller size but are stopped from entering the systemic circulation whereas PM0.1 particles are very toxic in nature as they get introduced into the systemic circulation causing toxic effects in the body [8, 30]. Particulate matter also comprises of poisonous metals and toxic compounds like lead, barium, nickel, chromium, etc. all of which have harmful health implications [8]. The average PM2.5 level in India is 40-50 g/m3 whereas the prescribed limit is of 10 g/m3 [7].

      As the cement industry grows, the concentration of particulate matter in the atmosphere by direct as well as fugitive emissions from stocked materials increase [31]. Different procedures in cement production like, quarrying, drilling, blasting, hauling, crushing, fuel preparation, grinding of the cement clinker, packaging and transport leads to the release of particulate matter, PM10 and PM2.5 [8,14,22,23,24]. Blasting of rocks produces dust particles which get distributed in the surrounding area, making it toxic [32]. Flue gases are the most usual waste released from mostly all cement manufacturing plants [29]. The cement kiln dust (CKD) which is composed of burnt, partially burnt and unburnt substances is produced during pyro-processing in the cement kiln [ 26,33]. The particle size of CKD ranges from 0-5m which approximately the clay size to a size greater than 50 m which is approximately the silt size [33]. Even though the CKD produced during the process is reused, its adverse impact is seen once it is dispersed in air [26].

      Approximately 175 tons of fly ash is generated per day, of which 75 tons are from the Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) Boiler used during the calcination and clinker cooling step of cement production [29]. An average of 10 to 12 tons of bottom ash also produced daily by the cement plants [29]. The CPCB of India has formulated a specific particulate emissions limit which is equal to 250 mgNm3 for the cement plants of India having a capacity of more than 200 tons per day (TPD) [23]. It is noted that a greater rigid standard of maximum 150 mgNm-3 was applicable for bigger plants on a case-to-case basis. After considering the above situation, the particulate concentration of the rotary kiln stack emission was found to be marginally exceeding the standard of 750 mg Nm-

      3 promulgated by CPCB [23]. As per the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, if we cut down the PM concentration from 70 to 20 g/m3, the air pollution causing death can be reduced to approximately 15% [27].

      Particulate matter	Fly ash	Bottom ash	Flue gas	Dust and smoke	Silica fume
      size	0.5 200 m	0.1-100mm		0.05 to 10 m/p>	<1m
      composition	SiO2- 47.8%	SiO2-56%	O2- 7.5%	Si-10.10%	SiO2-92.5%
      	Al2O3-24.4%	Al2O3 -26.7%	H2O-18.2%	Ca-32%	Al2O3 -0.7%
      	Fe2O3- 17.4%	Fe2O3-5.8%	CO2 17.8%	O2-36.14%	Fe2O3-0.96%
      	CaO 2.4%	CaO- 0.8%	N2- 56.5%	Al-1.68%	CaO- 0.4%
      	MgO 1.19%	MgO 0.6%	(rest in mg/N3)	Mg-0.30%	MgO-1.7%
      	Trace amounts of	SO3- 0.1%	Dust-8.7	Fe-1.09%	K2O 0.8%
      	SO3, K2O, Na2O,	K2O 2.6%	CO-1470	S-1.73%	Na2O-0.5%
      	Pb, Hg, Cr, Cd.	Na2O-0.2%	NOX- 250	C-10.64%
      		TiO2- 1.3%	SO2- 25	Cr-0.008%
      			HCl- 10	Trace amounts of Hg,
      				Cr, Co, Pb, Ni,
      				unburnt carbon
      				particles.
      Step of release	Burning of coal in	Burning process in	Production of	Almost at all steps	Calcination,
      	cement clinker	incinerator.	clinker and fuel	like crushing and	rotary kiln
      		Clinkerization.	combustion	grinding of raw
      				materials,
      				clinkerization,
      				calcination and
      				packaging of final
      				product.

      Table 1: Showing few particulate matters due to cement industry, their size, chemical composition and step of release [34-41].

   3. HEALTH IMPACTS

      Particulate matter is one of the major pollutants that exceeds the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) according to the data from National Air Quality Programme [ 7]. As per the study in [42] about 18% of the total deaths in India were caused directly or indirectly due to air pollution [7]. Nationally, it is found that an increase in air pollution causes a significant drop in labour and agricultural productivity hiking the expenditure on health infrastructure in turn [7]. The workers of the cement manufacturing plants have greater exposure to particulate pollution which accelerates their chances of acquiring more of the respiratory ailments than the local people [17-20].

      The particulate matter mobilizes a huge number of harmful compounds like metal oxides of iron, silicon, calcium, aluminium, magnesium, sand and other impurities which lead to occupational diseases like silicosis, bronchitis and pulmonary infections [19,31, 43, 44]. Cement dust components containing silica, chromium and alkaline substances which is capable of causing various serious pathological conditions [8,17-20, 44]. Some of them include pathogenesis of lung diseases like tuberculosis, chronic bronchitis, asthma, carcinoma of lungs, pneumoconiosis, stomach or colon disease, dermatological issues, allergy, corrosive effects, impairment of lung function, chronic obstructive lung disease, restrictive lung disease, premature deaths as well as increases mortality rate [ 8, 17-20,44,47-53]. Eye exposure to cement dust causes irritation leading to redness and blindness depending on the severity of exposure. Workers suffer from occupational asthma due to hexavalent chromium present in the cement [ 44]. As compared to adults the children suffer a more vital oxidative damage due to deposition of minute and fine particles in lungs [31]. The degraded air with differently sized particulate matter causes chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) affecting the lifestyle of workmen and local dwellers [14,32]. The aged people and those suffering from cardiopulmonary diseases are a part of the most endangered community considering an expected exposure to PM2.5 [14].

      The particulate matter enters the respiratory tract or the gastrointestinal tract by processes like breathing, inhalation or swallowing [8]. Studies have found that short term exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk of respiratory diseases to a great extent, owing to its ability of deeper penetration in the respiratory tract [14,8]. Lung dysplasia and squamous metaplasia in conjugation with greater frequency of respiratory symptoms and decreased ventilatory functions are known to have caused to the workers exposed to cement dust. Dysplasia in turn is said to be a precursor of squamous cell carcinoma [18,19]. Silica being an important ingredient of the cement dust leads to diseases like glomerulonephritis, vascular disease, acute silicosis, rheumatoid complications, interstitial fibrosis and also impacts the immune system [ 20, 45, 46]. The Central and peripheral nervous system is severely affected and the synthesis of Haemoglobin is hindered by lead and cadmium present in the cement dust. Lead on one hand affects the kidneys whereas Cadmium on the other hand shows the harmful actions on important

      enzymes of the body. Cadmium leads to painful osteomalacia and kidney damage. Cadmium pneumonitis featured by edema and necrosis of pulmonary epithelium happens when cadmium oxide dust and fumes are inhaled in the form of cement particulate. [17]

      Harmful effects of cement dust can also be traced to the environment in the form of change of chemical composition and pH of the soil, decreasing the chlorophyl concentration of the crop. The cement dust present on the leaves interfere with the natural absorption of sunlight and exchange of gases leading to diseases like premature falling of leaves and stunted growth. All of these lead to lower productivity of crops ultimately affecting the entire food chain [ 8, 54].

   4. RESOLUTION

      Inevitable growth of the cement industry is observed considering the increasing infrastructural needs of the country. Since the perilous nature of the industry cannot be overlooked it becomes a responsibility to find out safety methods. Use of proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in the form of helmet, earplugs, gloves, shields, clothing, masks and goggles for all the workers should be a must [25,44]. Dust generations can be reduced by watering during surface mining, wet drilling of limestone beds and lowering of power factor. Optimization of blast holes during rock blasting can reduce excessive output of flying rock. Planting of dense shrubs like Psidium cattleianum, Mangifera indica etc. can be a useful method for trapping the dust particles [25]. Alternative and less polluting fuel should be used. Various new technologies are brought forward to counter the implications of the plethoric industry. The particulate matters are channelized through a number of set-ups before releasing the emitted air into the atmosphere. The type of dust collector to be used is determined by the size of particles, quantity of moisture, rate of flow, dust loading and temperature of the gases. Special Air Pollution Control Devices (APCD) in the form of cyclones, multi-cyclones, bag filters, electonic precipitators, gravel bed filters and scrubbers are used. The raw gas is passed through filters and the clean gas exists out when passed through flexible pulse jet fabric filters. Electrostatic precipitators with 99% efficiency are used to remove dust particles with the help of electrostatic force and corona effect [13]. Unique wet scrubbers are designed where the gas is passed through a scrubbing liquid which removes the pollutants by absorbing them. Bag houses filtration technique where air is passed either way through fabric bags traps the particulate matter in the fibres. Fly ash can be removed with the help of cyclones where high velocity treatment is given to the particles. This method treatment is also backed by Selective Non-catalytic Reduction (SNCR) to remove the nitrogen oxides produced in the process. In compliance to the government regulations, the cement industries are employing various technologies to reduce the emissions. With the help of such technologies and many more new developments and computer modelling, the harmful effects of the particulate matter can be diminished and the environment saved in turn [13]

3. CONCLUSION

The need and demand of cement is ever increasing as it is directly proportional to the developing rate of any country. The production of cement can be done in a given number of steps, each of which leads to the generation of pollutants. The negative impacts of this industry can be measured in terms of the harmful impacts it has on the human life and the environment. In spite of this the production has to go on. A number of methods to reduce the generation of particulate matters have been summarized in this review article which can be a way to bring down the level of danger to a great extent. Thus, understanding the impacts and adapting to the judicious way of resources utilization can help the cement industry to grow even more without being much of a nuisance.

REFERENCES

1. Worrell, Ernst & Price, Lynn & Martin, Nathan & Hendriks, Chris & Ozawa-Meida, Leticia. (2001). Carbon Dioxide Emission from the Global Cement Industry. Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. 26. 303-29. 10.1146/annurev.energy.26.1.303.

2. Devi, Kuruva & Lakshmi V, Vijaya. (2018). Impacts of Cement Industry on Environment – An Overview.

3. Cement Manufacturers Association, In: Annual report 200910, New Delhi, India,2010

4. Balogun, Biola & C, Raj & kwame, Moses. (2016). AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN CEMENT INDUSTRIES IN INDIA. 10.13140/RG.2.2.17145.57448.

5. Ashish Kumar, Dr. Manish Kumar Sinha, CEMENT INDUSTRY IN INDIA: CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS, international journal of creative research thoughts, Volume 10, Issue 8 August 2022 | ISSN: 2320-2882

6. Sharma, Kuldeep, Ujjawal Jain, and Anupam Singhal. "Treatment of waste generated from cement industry and their treatment-a review." (2012).

7. Kanaujia, Anurag & Bhati, Madhulika & Sandhiya, L. & Nishad, Shiv Narayan & Bhattacharya, Sujit. (2022). Air Pollution in India: A Critical Assessment and Suggestive Pathways for Clean Air CSIR- NIScPR Discussion Paper Series.

8. Mishra, Shraddha, and Nehal Anwar Siddiqui. "A review on environmental and health impacts of cement manufacturing emissions." International Journal of Geology, agriculture and environmental sciences 2, no. 3 (2014): 26-31.

9. Madlool N.A., Saidur R, Hossain M.S, Rahim N.A, A critical review on energy use and savings in the cement industries, 2011

10. Huntzinger Deborah N., D. Eatmon Thomas, A life-cycle assessment of portland cement manufacturing: comparing the traditional process with alternative technologies, 2008

11. Rai Priyanka, Mishra RM and Parihar Sarita, Quantifying the Cement Air Pollution related Human Health diseases in Maihar city, MP, India, 2013

12. Cement Manufacturing,Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUP Effective July 1998.

13. Final document on revised classification of industrial sectors under red, orange , green and white categories (February 29,2016) . Central pollution control board,, Delhi.

14. Mohamad, Nabilla & Muthusamy, Khairunisa & Embong, Rahimah & Kusbiantoro, Andri & Hashim, Mohd. (2021). Environmental impact of cement production and Solutions: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings. 48. 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.212.

15. Devi, Kuruva & Lakshmi V, Vijaya. (2018). Impacts of Cement Industry on Environment – An Overview.

16. Laxmi Suthar, Pawan Kansara, Rishi Gupta, Dr. Garima Goswami, 2014, POLLUTION DUE TO CEMENT DUST, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY (IJERT) ETRASCT 2014 (Volume 2 Issue 03),.

17. Mitikie, Bahiru Bewket, and Daniel Tekalign Waldtsadik. "Partial replacement of cement by waste paper pulp ash and its effect on

    concrete properties." Advances in Civil Engineering 2022, no. 1 (2022): 8880196.

18. AlNeaimi, Y. I., J. Gomes, and O. L. Lloyd. "Respiratory illnesses and ventilatory function among workers at a cement factory in a rapidly developing country." Occupational Medicine 51, no. 6 (2001): 367-

    373.

19. Rahmani, Arshad H., Ahmad Almatroudi, Ali Yousif Babiker, Amjad

    A. Khan, and Mohammed A. Alsahly. "Effect of exposure to cement dust among the workers: an evaluation of health related complications." Open access Macedonian journal of medical sciences 6, no. 6 (2018): 1159.

20. Hommi, B. S., Mohamed Siddig Abdelaziz, and Hussain G. Ahmed. "Effect of occupational cement dust pollution on the respiratory epithelium in Amran cement factory-Yemen." (2014): 25-32.

21. Zhu, Xinghan & Jinzhong, Yang & Huang, Qifei & Liu, Tao. (2022). A Review on Pollution Treatment in Cement Industrial Areas: From Prevention Techniques to Python-Based Monitoring and Controlling Models. Processes. 10. 2682. 10.3390/pr10122682.

22. Gaharwar, Anoop Singh, Naveen Gaurav, A. P. Singh, Hira Singh, and Bhoora Gariya. "A review article on manufacturing process of cement, environment attributes, topography and climatological data station: 1MD." Sidhi MP Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies 4 (2016): 47-53.

23. Gupta, R. K., Deepanjan Majumdar, J. V. Trivedi, and A. D. Bhanarkar. "Particulate matter and elemental emissions from a cement kiln." Fuel processing technology 104 (2012): 343-351.

24. Dixit, Varun & Rajak, Binay & Aggrwal, Yash. (2015). An Analysis of a Indian Cement Manufacturing Firm form Quality Prospective. International Journal of Engineering Research and. V4. 10.17577/IJERTV4IS060464.

25. Abdul-Wahab, Sabah Ahmed, Hilal Al-Dhamri, Ganesh Ram, and Vishnu P. Chatterjee. "An overview of alternative raw materials used in cement and clinker manufacturing." International Journal of Sustainable Engineering 14, no. 4 (2021): 743-760.

26. Van Oss, Hendrik G., and Amy C. Padovani. "Cement manufacture and the environment part II: environmental challenges and opportunities." Journal of Industrial ecology 7, no. 1 (2003): 93-126.

27. Jena, Madhab Chandra, Sarat kumar Mishra, and Himanshu Sekhar Moharana. "Air pollution from cement plants: case study on particulate matter in Bihar, India.&quo; Environmental Claims Journal 32, no. 3 (2020): 221-232.

28. Kalai, Ivo. "Chronic nonspecific lung disease in cement workers." Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal 26, no. 2 (1973): 78-83.

29. Krishna, R. S., J. Mishra, S. Meher, Shaswat K. Das, S. M. Mustakim, and Saurabh K. Singh. "Industrial solid waste management through sustainable green technology: Case study insights from steel and mining industry in Keonjhar, India." Materials today: proceedings 33 (2020): 5243-5249.

30. Kireová, Simona, and Milan Guzan. "Measurement of particulate matter: Principles and options of measurement at present." Acta Electrotech. Et Inform 22 (2022): 8-18.

31. Di Ciaula, Agostino. "Bioaccumulation of toxic metals in children exposed to urban pollution and to cement plant emissions." Exposure and Health 13, no. 4 (2021): 681-695.

32. Singh, Sandeep. "Ambient air quality examination of a cement industry: A case study." Materials Today: Proceedings 37 (2021): 3635-3638.

33. Abril, Gabriela A., Eduardo D. Wannaz, Ana C. Mateos, and María L. Pignata. "Biomonitoring of airborne particulate matter emitted from a cement plant and comparison with dispersion modelling results." Atmospheric Environment 82 (2014): 154-163.

34. Harrison, Roy M., Ronald E. Hester, and Xavier Querol, eds. Airborne particulate matter: sources, atmospheric processes and health. Royal Society of Chemistry, 2016

35. Seham S. Alterary, Narguess H. Marei, Fly ash properties, characterization, and applications: A review, Journal of King Saud University – Science, Volume 33, Issue 6,2021,101536,ISSN 1018- 3647,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101536.

36. Permatasari, R., Sodri, A., & gustina, H.A. (2023). Utilization of Fly Ash Waste in the Cement Industry and its Environmental Impact: A Review. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA, 9(9), 569579. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v9i9.4504

37. Abdullah, Mohamad & A Rashid, Ahmad Safuan & Anuar, U & Marto, Aminaton & Osman, Rasha. (2019). Bottom ash utilization: A review on engineering applications and environmental aspects. IOP

    Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 527. 012006. 10.1088/1757-899X/527/1/012006.

38. Schakel, Wouter & Hung, Christine & Tokheim, Lars-André & Strømman, Anders & Worrell, Ernst & Ramírez, Andrea. (2018). Impact of fuel selection on the environmental performance of post- combustion calcium looping applied to a cement plant. Applied Energy.

    210. 75-87. 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.10.123.

39. Gharpure A, Heim JW II, Vander Wal RL. Characterization and Hazard Identification of Respirable Cement and Concrete Dust from Construction Activities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerpp81910126

40. Ogunsina, Olabode & Olusegun, Olusola & George, Akintan & Samson, Ayedogbon. (2021). Environmental and Health Implications of Cement Production Plant Emissions in Nigeria: Ewekoro Cement Plant as a Case Study. 1-8.

41. Hamada, Hussein & Abed, Farid & Katman, Herda & Humada, Ali Mahmood & Al Jawahery, Mohammed & Majdi, Ali & Yousif, Salim. (2023). Effect of silica fume on the properties of sustainable cement concrete. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 24. 10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.05.147.

42. Dandona, L. (2021). Health and economic impact of air pollution in the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. India State- Level Disease Burden Initiative Air Pollution Collaborators. Lancet Planet Health, 5(1), e25e38, DOI:10.1016/S2542-5196(20)30298-9.

43. Oleru, U. G. "Pulmonary function and symptoms of Nigerian workers exposed to cement dust." Environmental research 33, no. 2 (1984): 379-385.

44. Mishra, Manish & Patel, Mahendra. (2019). Occupational Health and Safety in Cement Industry. 02. 739-742.

45. Zeyede K Zeleke, Bente E Moen and Magne Bråtveit Lung Function reduction and chronic respiratory symptoms among Workers in the cement industry: a follow up study BMC Pulmonary Medicine. 2011; 11:50. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2466-11-50PMid:22067264 PMCid:PMC3247867

46. Thepaksorn P, Pongpanich S, Siriwong W, Chapman RS, Taneepanichskul S. Respiratory symptoms and patterns of Pulmonary dysfunction among roofing fiber cement workers in the South of Thailand. J Occup Health. 2013; 55:2128. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.12-0122-OA PMid:23183021

47. Royal Society of Chemistry, UK, 2016, ISBN: 978-1-

48. Royal Society of Chemistry, UK, 2016, ISBN: 978-1-78262-491-2.

49. 47. Meo, Sultan A. "Health hazards of cement dust." Saudi medical journal 25, no. 9 (2004): 1153-1159.

50. Ogunbileje, J. O., O. M. Akinosun, O. G. Arinola, and P. A. Akinduti. "Immunoglobulin classes (IgG, IgA, IgM and IgE) and liver function tests in Nigerian cement factory workers." Researcher 2 (2010): 55-58.

51. Neghab, Masoud & Choobineh, Alireza. (2007). Work-related Respiratory Symptoms and Ventilatory Disorders among Employees of a Cement Industry in Shiraz, Iran. Journal of occupational health. 49. 273-8. 10.1539/joh.49.273.

52. Pordan L, Bachofen G. Cement and concrete. In: Stellman JM, ed. Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety, 4th ed. Geneva:

    International labor organization, 1998: 93.4493.49

53. Yang CY, Huang CC, Chiu HF, Chiu JF, Lan SJ and Ko YC: Effects of occupational dust exposure on the respiratory health of Portland cement workers. J Toxicol Environ Health 49, 581588 (1996)

54. Abrons HL, Peterson MR, Sanderson WT, Engelberg AL and Harber P: Chest radiography in Portland cement workers. J Occup Environ Med 39, 10471054 (1997)

55. Meo SA: Chest radiological findings in Pakistani cement mill workers. Saudi Med J 24, 287290 (2003)

56. Chaurasia, Sadhana. "Effect of cement industry pollution on chlorophyll content of some crops at Kodinar, Gujarat, India." Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and environmental sciences 3, no. 4 (2013): 288.