DOI : 10.17577/IJERTV2IS111120
- Open Access
- Total Downloads : 2331
- Authors : Nyachaka C.J, Yawas D.S, Pam G.Y
- Paper ID : IJERTV2IS111120
- Volume & Issue : Volume 02, Issue 11 (November 2013)
- Published (First Online): 27-11-2013
- ISSN (Online) : 2278-0181
- Publisher Name : IJERT
- License:
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Bio-Ethanol Production from Rice Husk and Performance Test of Petrol and Bioethanol Blends in a Spark Ignition Engine
Bio-Ethanol Production from Rice Husk and Performance Test of Petrol and Bioethanol Blends in a Spark Ignition Engine
Nyachaka C.J1 Yawas D.S2 Pam G.Y3
1.Department of Mechanical Engineering Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria 2.Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria
3.Senior Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
In this era of globalization, the increasing demand for energy and the dependence of countries on energy indicate that energy will continue to be relevant in the world. There is therefore, a need to search for alternative and renewable sources of energy. The focus of this research is on rice husk which constitute an environmental
waste but has been used in the production of ethanol by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation by co- culture of Aspergillis niger and sacharomyces cerevisiae. Optimal ethanol yield was obtained on day 7, at 31oC temperature and agitation rate 300 rpm and the performance evaluation from engine test indicate that highest
brake power, torque and brake mean effective pressure recorded for E40% blend at 1500 rpm engine speed. Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrous oxide (NOx) emission decrease as the ethanol blend increases.
Keyword: Bioethanol, Biofuel, Ethanol, Brake power, Brake mean effective pressure, Torque, Specific fuel efficiency, and Specific fuel consumption
-
INTRODUCTION
Energy has been recognized as one of the most important strategic commodities considered to be the lifeline of an economy. Energy is an important factor of production in all economies. The efficient exploitation and development of a nations energy resources is therefore, of great importance to the progress and well-being of the people.
In this era of globalization, the increasing demand for energy and the dependence of countries
On energy indicate that energy will be one of the biggest problems in the world. There is therefore, a need for alternative and renewable sources of energy.
Energy from different sources would continue to play a determining role especially the non- conventional ones are likely to make significant contribution to the overall national economy.
Currently, 85% of the worlds energy demand is met by combustion of fossil fuels which are depletable. The global energy demand is expected to grow by about 50% by 2025, the major part of this increase coming from rapidly emerging countries. Given the growing world population, increasing energy demand per capital and global warming, the need for a long term alternative energy supply is clear. Biofuels offer the advantage of coming from large, mainly under-utilised biomass resources that are sustainable and renewable.
Biofuels apply to solid, liquid or gaseous fuel produced from biological materials (biomass) can be used for the generation of power, heat or fuel for motive power. (Ugochukwu, 2010; Agba et al., 2010). The biomass constitutes the feedstock destined for conversion into biofuels. The use of biomass as a source of energy has two main
advantages: First is its nearly unlimited availability and second is the fact that it can be used without essential damage to the environment. In addition, biomass resources are considered renewable as they are naturally occurring and by comparison with other renewable energy resources such as solar and wind, biomass is a storable resource, inexpensive and has favourable energetic efficiency. Biomass resources available in the country include:
Agricultural crops, agricultural crop residues, fuel wood and forestry residues, waste paper, sawdust and wood shavings, residues from food industries, energy crops, animal dung/poultry droppings, industrial effluent/municipal solid waste. (Ugochukwu, 2010 ; Sambo, 2009; Ajueyitsi, 2009;
Tayo, 2008).
-
Rice hulls (or rice husks) are the hard protecting coverings of grains of rice. In addition to protecting rice during the growing season, rice hulls can be put to use as building material, fertilizer, insulation material, chicken incubation and for production for biofuels. (http://esrla.com)
-
Production of rice husks
During the milling process, the hulls are removed from the grain to create brown rice, which is then milled further to remove the bran layer, creating white rice.
Rice husk, which accounts for 20% by weight of rice, comes from rice milling process as by- product. Generally, a large amount of rice husk is dumped as waste which results in waste
disposal problem and methane emissions. Moreover, the low density of rice husk can cause it to be air-borne easily resulting in breathing problems, if inhaled. Rice husk can be converted to a useful form of energy to meet the thermal and mechanical energy requirement for the mills themselves. This will helps in minimizing the waste disposal problem in addition to converting rice husk to a renewable energy resource.
According to Agricultural Production Survey (APS) conducted annually in the 36 states of the
federation and the Federal Capital Terrotory (FCT) by the State ADPs who implement various donor- assisted agricultural development projects show that the overall land area to rice production in Nigeria was estimated at over 1.98 million hactres in 2009. Production figure for rice was over 4.3 million metric tonnes. The national yield average of rice was estimated at 2.18 metric tonne/ hactre.
Table 1 show the cultivated area, production, and yield by smallholder farmer.
Table 1: Showing Cultivated area, Production, and Yield by Smallholder Farmers in Nigeria
S/no
Year Cultivated Area (000 HA) Production (000 Metric Yield (KG/HA)
Tonnes)
1
2004
57.30
110.4
1,926
2
2005
70.96
134.7
1,898
3
2006
67.99
121.9
1,793
4
2007
68.42
122.5
1,882
Source: Agricultural Production Survey (APS, 2010)
Composition of Rice husk waste
The composition of rice husk sample is presented in Table 2 below
Table 2: Showing the Composition of rice husk sample.
Parameters Result Basis
C 42.2% Dry
H 5% Dry
O 36% Dry
N 0.7% Dry
S * Dry
Moisture content 11% Dry
Heating Value 13.79 MJ/kg Dry Source: Thipwimon and Suthum (2009).
-
Bio-ethanol Fuel
-
Bio-fuels are attracting growing interest around the world, with some governments announcing commitment to bio-fuel programmes as a way to both reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on petroleum-based fossil fuels. The
1. Brake Power (Pb) : It is the actual work output of an engine or the actual work available at the crank shaft. It is usually measured using a dynamometer
United State of America, Brazil, and several European Union (EU) member states have the largest programms promoting bio-fuel in the world.
2.0 Engine Operating Parameters
W = Load (lb)
R = Torque arm length (m)
Brake Power (Bp) = WN
Where,
(1)
- <>Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bmep): is a measure of the power produced per cycle as a function of engine size:
W = Load reading (lb)
Brake Mean Effective Pressure = BP
LANn
(3)
N = Speed (rpm)
2. The Torque is obtained by the product of the load applied and the dynamometer arm length
Torque on Dynamometer (T) = WR (2)
Where,
Where,
Bp = Brake load (lb) L = Stroke (m)
A = D2
4
N = Speed (rps)
n = Number of cylinder
-
Volumetric Efficiency (v): Is the mass of air equal to the density of atmospheric air times the displacement volume of the cylinder
Note Before: Barometric Readings.
-
Atmospheric pressure (in Hg)
a + Vf
a + Vf
V
Volumetric Efficiency ( ) =
(4)
-
Ambient Temperature (K)
v
V = Volume of Sample
Where,
f Rate of consumption
Vs = VsNn
maRTa
maRTa
Va = Volume of air = P (5)
a
a
== 00..886666 PhPh (6)
a = mass of air (kg/s)
h = Manometer reading in (in) = H sin R = Gas Constant = 287 J/KG.K
Vs = Swept volume (m3/s)
-
MATERIALS AND METHODS
-
MATERIALS
3.1.1 Rice Husk
Rice husk was obtained from local rice mill in Samaru market Zaria.
-
METHODOLOGY
Pre-treatment of Lignocellulosic Source
Rice husk substrates were washed with distilled water dried for three days at 60o in hot air
Memmert oven so as to reduce the moisture content and make them more susceptible to milling. The substrates were milled with motor and pistil, sieved to pass through a 2.2 mm mesh sieve. 1500g was weighed; the samples were then soaked in 1% (w/v) sodium hydroxide solution (NAOH) for 2hours at room temperature. This treatment of lignocellulosic materials caused swelling; leading to an increase in internal surface area, decrease in the degree of polymerisation, decrease in crystallinity, and separation of structural linkages
between lignin, carbohydrates and disruption of the lignin structure (Fan et al., 1987).
Samples Collection of producer microorganisms:
Pure culture strains of Aspergilus niger and Saccharomycs cerevesiae isolates were used for this study. The organisms were maintained as direct stocks culture from which inoculates were prepared. Fungal species of A. niger and S. cerevesiae were originally isolated from soil samples and palm wine respectively, The microscopic feature of pure grown colonies were
observed and identified according to methods of Bailey et al (2004).
Inoculum Preparation
The organisms were grown on malt extract agar slant at 30oC for 5 days and stored at 4oC with regular sub-culturing. 150 ml of inoculums was
prepared for each culture using 5g glucose, 10g peptone, 5g yeast extract in 1000 ml distilled water. The inoculum was shaken continuously on an environment-controlled incubator shaker (Model
3527-1/34) at 200 rpm and 34oC for 48 hours
before it was used for the fermentation process as outlined by Bailey et al (2004).
Preparation of Fermentation Medium
The fermentation medium used for ethanol production consisted of glucose 8% (w/v), peptone 0.1% (w/v), Malt extract 0.1% (w/v), Yeast extract 0.2% (w/v), Magnesium chloride 0.01% (w/v), Calcium carbonate 0.2% (w/v ), Ammonium sulphate 0.2% (w/v),and Ferrous sulphate,0.001% (w/v) respectively. 2000 ml medium culture was prepared and 300 ml dispensed into 7 no 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask. The
flask were sterilised in an autoclave (Model Astell ASB 300) at 1210C for 15 minutes at 15 psi pressure and inoculated with 15 ml and 4 ml
containing growth innocula of S. cerevesiae and A. niger cells and 2 million spores respectively according to the method of Abouxied, and Reddy (1986). The flasks were incubated on an orbital shaker (Model Vineland NJ SH2-526) with an
initial agitation rate of 300 rpm at 300C for seven
days, each sample withdrawn at 24 hours interval for distillation.
Qualitative Analysis of Ethanol Present in the Distillate
Distillation process was carried out and filtered. The filtrate were distilled at 790C using a rotary
evaporator. The qualitative analysis was carried out using ethanoic acid. Two milliliters ethanoic acid was added to 1ml of the distillate and heated in the water bath for 5 minutes until characteristic sweet smell of esters was perceived and recommended by Abouxied (1986).
Determination of Density and Specific gravity
A Digital Electronic Balance, Model FA2004 was used for this. The densities and specific gravities of the solutions were determined using standard
procedure as in Amadi et al (2004) and the results recorded. The ethanol concentration was plotted against the number of days.
Determination of Refractive Index
The refractive index of standard ethanol concentration was determined using Abbe Refractometer (Model 2WAJ) at 28o C. The
refractive index of same volume of distilled water
was also determined. The refractive index values recorded for each of the samples as suggested by Amadi et al (2004).
3.2.1 Engine Test Experiment
A petters spark ignition four stroke single cylinder petrol engine was connected to an electric dynamo-meter with the help of a coupling and
mounted on a rigid frame. A Tachometer was used
for engine measurement. A U tube manometer, air filter, fuel measuring tube, and a gas analyser were arranged.
Experimental Fuels
The following fuels where used in the experiment:
Petrol
Ethanol from rice husk
Table 3
Baseline Engine conditions:
Parameters Description
Bore 8.50 cm
Bore 8.50 cm
Stroke 8.25 cm
Compression Ratio 6:1
Swept Volume 468.67 cm
Maximum BHP 1650 rev/min
Maximum BHP 1650 rev/min
Brake Arm 32.0167 cm
Brake Arm 32.0167 cm
Maximum Speed 2000 rev/min
Manometer angle 15o
Orifice Size 1.905 cm
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) 0.60 cm
Test Procedure on Petters heat engine
Before starting, water circulation to the engine was ensured. The Transformer was switched on so as to supply current to the electrical D.C motor which runs the Petter Paiws test engine as it is a motor start engine. The loads were released, the field and start switches were switched on. On operating the starting lever, the motor runs the test engine until it fires, thereafter the test engine powers the D.C motor which operates the D.C electrical dynamometer from which relevant data were recorded.
Readings were taken on the rate of fuel consumption, speed, load coolant and exhaust temperatures of every fuel sample.
The experiment commenced with 100% gasoline as a reference and later with the gasoline ethanol fuel blends (E10, E20, E30, E40, and E50). The results were recorded.
IMR 1400 gas analyzer
This is equipment for analysing emission products directly from the combustion chamber. The IMR 1400 is a state-of- the- art combustion gas analyser that was used for the experiment.
IMR 1400 model measures and calculates the following:
-Flue Gas Temperature
– Carbon dioxide (CO2)
-Carbon monoxide (CO) (Corrected to 0%O2)
-Nitrogen dioxide (NOx, Corrected to 0%O2)
-Sulfur dioxide (SOx, Corrected to 0%O2)
Procedure
After all preliminary inspection for starting the Heat engine was observed, PETTER Engine started and allowed to idle and set to 1200 revolution per minute. The duct was then connected through the gas sampling probe to the analyzer, The gas sampling probe was initially at ambient air during the zero calibration and the unit turned on to start the zero calibration which took 180 seconds before measurement started. Fuel type, engineering unit (PPM) was selected on the display screen through the selection menu. Exhaust duct valve turned open and readngs were recorded for each set of experiment at point source and at 3meters measured distance.
Interval of one minute was observed before next reading was taken, and after each run the dust filter and the sensor removed and cleaned free of soot and readings recorded in table.
-
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
-
RESULTS OF ETHANOL PRODUCTION
The results of the test conducted were recorded and plotted in figures (1), Glucose Concentration Vs Number of days (2), Ethanol yields Vs Number of days (3), Ph value Vs Number of days and (4), Refractive index Vs Number of days
1.6
Glucose Concetration (mg/ml)
Glucose Concetration (mg/ml)
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No of days
Ethanol yield (ml)
Ethanol yield (ml)
Fig 1: Glucose Concentration Vs Number of days
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
No of days
No of days
Fig 2: Ethanol yields Vs Number of days
6.8
6.75
6.7
6.65
6.6
6.55
6.5
6.45
6.4
6.35
6.8
6.75
6.7
6.65
6.6
6.55
6.5
6.45
6.4
6.35
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
No of Days
No of Days
pH Values
pH Values
Fig 3: PH value Vs Number of days
1.339
Refractive Index
Refractive Index
1.3385
1.338
1.3375
1.337
1.3365
1.336
1.3355
1.335
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No of Days
Fig 4: Refractive Index Vs Number of days
-
RESULTS OF PERFORMANCE OF SI ENGINE
4.2.1 Result of Brake Power Vs Engine Speed
From the result of the performance of the Petters Spark Ignition Engine the behaviours of parameters of Brake Power Vs Engine Speed is presented in Fig 5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
E0%
E10% E20% E30% E40% E50%
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
E0%
E10% E20% E30% E40% E50%
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
Speed (rpm)
Speed (rpm)
6
6
Brake power (W)
Brake power (W)
Fig 5: Brake Power Vs Speed
Result of Torque Vs Engine Speed
Torque (Nm)
Torque (Nm)
From the result of the performance of the Petters Spark Ignition Engine the behaviours of parameters of Torque Vs Engine Speed are presented in Figure 6 below.
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
E0%
E10% E20% E30% E40%
E50%
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
E0%
E10% E20% E30% E40%
E50%
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Speed (rpm)
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Speed (rpm)
Fig 6: Torque Vs Speed
Result of Brake Mean Effective Pressure Vs Engine Speed
From the result of the performance of the Petters Spark Ignition Engine the behaviours of parameters of Brake Mean Effective Pressure Vs Engine Speed are presented in Figure 5
Brake mean efective pressure (bar)
Brake mean efective pressure (bar)
9.4
9.2
9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8
7.8
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Speed (rpm)
E0% E10% E20% E30% E40% E50%
Fig 7: Brake Mean Effective Pressure Vs Speed
Result of Volumetric Efficiency Vs Engine Speed
From the result of the performance of the Petters Spark Ignition Engine the behaviors of parameters of Volumetric Efficiency Vs Engine Speed are presented in Figure 8.
20
Volumetric efficiency (%)
Volumetric efficiency (%)
18
16
14
12
10
8
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Speed (rpm)
E0% E10% E20% E30% E40% E50%
Fig 8: Volumetric efficiency Vs Speed
4.3 DISCUSSION
4.3.1 Discussion of Result of Reducing Sugar Concentration Obtained from Agricultural Wastes
From figure 1, the ability of A. niger and cellulase to breakdown rice husk into reducing sugar in terms of amount of reducing sugar (mg/ml) produced at 24 hour intervals for seven days. Rice husk was hydrolysed to produce 1.35 mg/ml, and
0.62 mg/ml reducing sugar concentration respectively on the first day and seventh day of batcp. In batch two, 1.32 mg/ml, 1.29 mg/ml, and
0.47 mg/ml was hydrolysed on the first, second and seventh day. The reducing sugar concentration decrease gradually as the fermentation period increases.
Fermentation of rice husk
The rate of ethanol yield increases as the fermentation period increase. Thus, 4.20 ml, 4.50 ml and 5.40 ml was produced on first, second and the seventh day respectively as recorded in table. Total ethanol yield obtained from 420g of substrate of rice husk is 55 ml. Batch two indicates a decrease of yield to 34.54 ml and 42.94 ml respectively.
From the result, it was observed that as the concentration of the distillate increases, the refractive index also increase which implies that ethanol concentration is directly proportional to its refractive index. The refractive index of the ethanol obtained from rice husk ranged from 1.3356 to 1.3384 batch one, and 1.3352 to 1.3403
The calculated result of densities of ethanol from rice husk was, 720.8 kg/m3
Specific gravity of ethanol obtained from rice husk is 0.7208
pH values of the ethanol obtained from rice husk wastes also decreases as the concentration increases. Values obtained presented in table 4 & 5 above.
Discussion of Result for Engine Performance Test.
Brake Power
Brake Power was found to be relatively equal at lowest engine speed of 1000 rpm as shown Figure 5, it shows that Brake Power increase with increase in speed, At the speed of 1500 rpm, E50% developed the highest brake power followed by E40%, E30%, E10% and E20%. Gasoline
developed the lowest brake work, this may seen that due to better combustion condition the engine power increase when more ethanol is added to gasoline
Due to oxygen in ethanol composition the combustion process improves in the engine which is in agreement with the findings by Alvydas and Saugirdas (2003).
Torque
From the graphs of Torque Vs Speed Figure 6, Torque is good indicator of an engine ability to do work. Torque decreases with increase in engine speed. On the other hand, slightly higher torque is produced by the gasoline ethanol blends at low engine speed. Gasoline (E0%) developed the lowest torque of 54.49 N-m at engine speed of 1500 rpm. This is because the engine is unable to
ingest a full charge of air at higher speed, also because friction loss increases with speed as explained by Pulkrabek, (2003).
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) is directly proportional to the torque developed by the engine. Figure 7 showed slightly higher torque and BMEP at speed of 1000 rpm for blend of banana peel, groundnut shell and rice husk and sole fuel (gasoline). Lowest BMEP of 7.92 bar for gasoline (E0%) was recorded at 1400 rpm engine speed. At low engine speeds the higher heating value of gasoline is responsible high BMEP.
Volumetric Efficiency
Figure 8, showed that volumetric efficiency is slightly affected by increase
in lends of gasoline ethanol. Peak Volumetric efficiency of 22.35% was recorded f at 1200 rpm engine speed and lowest volumetric efficiency of 10.09% for gasoline (E0%). This is in agreement with Andreas (2003), that volumetric efficiency is
inversely proportional to engine speed, increasing the compression ratio, decreases the clearance volume and hence a higher volumetric efficiency is obtained.
4.4 RESULT OF EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF SI ENGINE FOR BLENDS
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
O2 %
CO (PPM) /Cr NOx (PPM) /Cr SOX (PPM) /Cr CO2 %
Exhust Temp (0c)
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
O2 %
CO (PPM) /Cr NOx (PPM) /Cr SOX (PPM) /Cr CO2 %
Exhust Temp (0c)
E0% E10% E20% E30% E40% E50%
E0% E10% E20% E30% E40% E50%
Fig 9: Exhaust emission at point source Vs Blend Ratio
100
80
60
40
20
0
E0% E10% E20% E30% E40% E50%
O2 %
CO (PPM) /Cr NOx (PPM) /Cr SOX (PPM) /Cr CO2 %
Exhust Temp (0c)
Fig 10: Exhaust emission at 3m distance Vs Blend Ratio
EMISSION
The effects of gasoline ethanol blend with sole gasoline showed that the amount of carbon monoxide (CO) emitted decrease greatly as the percentage of blend increase, NOx emission slightly decrease as the blend increase, at point and 3m measure distance. At point source an overflow
2000 ppm was recorded, and 9% reduction of CO emission at 3m distance and engine speed of 1200 rpm. Thus, ethanol decrease the amount of CO emission in the engine exhaust, this is because the fuel mixture combust better and the amount of incomplete combustion product decreases (Alvydas and Saugirdas 2003).
-
-
-
CONCLUSION
From the results and discussion on the study, the following conclusion can be drawn:
The result of the experiment conducted showed that Cellulosic agricultural wastes particularly rice husk is a potential substrate which can be exploited for bioethanol production on a commercial scale as it is cheap and more importantly renewable.
Ethanol is a relatively clean burning liquid, as the amount of gasoline blended with ethanol
decreases. Ethanol is compatible with at least some fuel cell configurations, offering the potential for dramatic reductions in air pollution as well as high efficiency.
Ethanol blends with gasoline causes significant improvement in engine performance, indicating parameters like Brake power, Torque, Brake Mean Effective Pressure, Volumetric Efficiency and Fuel consumption been observed for various additives. Addition of 50% ethanol gasoline was feasible though with difficulty in starting but there was significant reduction in exhaust emission as engine speed increase. Values of CO, NOx, SOx, emission decreases dramatically as a result of leaning effects caused by ethanol addition.
It was observed that the load decreases as the speed of the engine increase, Brake Power increases as the speed of the engine increase, Torque decrease as the speed increase. However fuel consumption increase with addition of alcohol in the blended fuel, exhaust gas temperature is found to increase with alcohol addition to gasoline.
Reference:
-
Adamawa A. D. P (1996). Recommended Crop Production Practice for Adamawa state Nigeria.
-
Agba A.M., Ushie M.E., Abam F.I., Agba M.S. Okoro J. (2010). Developing the Biofuel Industry for Effective Rural Transformation. European Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 40 No. 3, pp 441-449.
-
Ajueyitsi O.N (2009). Optimization of Biomass Briquette Utilisation a Fuel for Domestic use. PhD Research Proposal Seminar, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, FUTO.
-
Ambarish, D., Achin, K. C and Bijan, K.M (2012).Experimental study on the performance of Spark Ignition Engine with Alcohol Gasoline blends on Fuel. International Journal of Energy Engineering.
-
Andress, D. (2000): Air Quality and GHG Emissions Associated with Using Ethanol in Gasoline Blends Oak Ridge National Laboratory/UT-Batelle, Inc.
-
Bruce, S. D (1998). The Emergence of Agriculture. Scientific American Library. A Division of HPHLP, New York.
-
Dominik R. and Rainer J. (2007). Biofuel Technology Handbook, WIP Renewable Energies.
-
Food and Agricultural Organisation (2009). http:// www.fao.org
-
FAOSTAT (2010).http://www.faostat.fao.org. Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations.
-
Osaghae O. J. (2009). Potential Biomass Based Electricity Generation in a Rural Community in Nigeria. Master Thesis, Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Division of Energy Engineering, Lulea University of Technology.
-
Jakayinfa S.O. and Scolz V. (2007). Assessment of Availability and Cost of Energetically Usable Crop Residues in Nigeria. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, University of Kassel-Witzenhausen and University of Gottingen.
-
Pulkrabek, W. W. (2003). Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine. Second Edition, Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458.
-
Srinivasan, C.A and Saravanan, C.G (2010). Emision reduction in SI engine using ethanol gasoline blends on thermal barrier coated piston. International Journal of Energy and Environment Pp. 715-726
-
Thipwimon, C., Shabbir, H. G., and Suthum, P. (2009). Emission Assessment of Rice Husk Combustion for Power Production.World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology