Impact of Tilpara Barrage on Back Water Reach of Kushkarni River: A Tributary of Mayurakshi River

Impact of Tilpara Barrage on Back Water Reach of Kushkarni River: A Tributary of Mayurakshi River

Iqra Mansuri

Civil Engg & Applied Mechanics Department, SGSITS, Indore, India

Abstract -Tilpara barrage over Mayurakshi River has exerted crucial impact on backwater reach of river Kushkarni (4.5 km upstream reach) which debouches to Mayurakshi River at immediate upstream head of this barrage. Study area is located at the Chota Nagpur plateau fringe highly erodible Rarh tract of Birbhum district of West Bengal. From this study, it is found that due to storage of water in the reservoir, backwater created and conuence part of the Kushkarni River is submerged. Stagnation of reservoir water reduced carrying capacity of channel by 26 %, and it is facilitated by declining trend of channel bed slope and velocity of ow. Depth of channel is attenuated by 1771 cm depositing 919,342.6 m3 of coarser sediment load. In this circumstance, high ood level frequency in same inow state has increased by 26.5 % and channel braiding has started to nucleate. Alternate textural sequence of materials from river bed reveals some irregular episodic inow events within reservoir. Episodic discharge and consequent large ood have created thick sand splay cover in the left side of the channel and damaged agricultural land. Potential bank erosion hazard index or BEHI is considerably high (27.35 31.73) in this backwater reach, and the process is mainly triggered by liquefaction. Considering existing forms and functions of the study segment, it is evaluated with existing reservoir upstream channel morphology model of Skalak et al. (2013) and found to be proximate. Such alteration of channel morphology in this segment is linked with socio-ecological fabric of the surrounding area. Along with channel morphological readjustment, socio-ecological setup is also moving toward new adjustment.

Keywords- Tilpara reservoir, channel backwaters, aggradations, coarsening of bed, arrhythmic sediment succession, sand splay, etc.

1. INTRODUCTIONAn electric vehicle is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, drawing energy from rechargeable batteries. The fig.1. Electric vehicle block diagram shows the main components of electric vehicle such as batteries, charger, junction box, traction inverters & regeneration unit, controller, drive unit, motor and DC-DC for auxiliary supply for lamps, horn and body control.

   One of the greatest modications of the uvial landscape in the Anthropocene is the construction of dams. Merritts et al. (2011) rightly termed those rivers as Anthropocene Stream referring a stream set apart by deposits, forms and processes that are the triggered by human impacts. Approximately 800,000 dams have been constructed worldwide up to last century (Friedl and Wuest 2002). Indias share on world total dam is 15 % (Graf 999a, b) which is unexpectedly high, and

   in India, up to 2014, large dam above 15 m height is 5193 (NRLD 2014). On a global scale, river damming has increased the mean residence time of river waters from 16 to 47 days and has increased the volume of standing water more than 700

   % (Friedl and Wuest 2002). The timescale of major dam building was contemporaneous globally, with an extreme acceleration in activity in 1950 and a peak in Dams provide valuable services such as irrigation, hydroelectric power, ood protection and recreational prospects (Collier et al. 1996; Graf 1999a, b), but they have had a dramatic effect on river form and function. Dam effects on river morphology and uvial processes have become increasingly important to watershed management during recent decades. Flow regimes, channel morphology, sediment transport and ecological processes such as the quality of riparian and aquatic habitats have been inuenced by dams (Heinz Center 2002). The downstream impact of dams is well documented by Petts and Lewin (1979), Petts (1982), Galay (1983), Gregory (1987),

   Higgs and Petts (1988) Graf (2005, 2006), Zhou (1996), Petts and Gurnell (2005a, b), Schmidt and Wilcock (2008), Hupp et al. (2009), Grant (2012), Pal (2015), etc. But very few have documented the upstream impact of reservoir. Petts (1980), Xu (2001a, b), Pollock et al. (2007), Evans et al. (2007), Skalak et al. (2009), Alibert et al. (2011), Skalak et al. (2013), Kumar and Dev (2014) etc. focusing mainly on hydrological, morphological and ecological aspects upstream of reservoir. Particular emphasis is given in most of the works on sedimentation of reservoirs, sediment type, coarseness of sediment, sediment succession and types of deposit formations. Skalak et al. (2013) scientically established the fact that the coarser sediment is deposited in the delta front and ner sediment in the reservoir through either stratied or disrupted manner based on the sediment supply from the upstream contributing areas and operation principles of reservoir. Other mechanisms such as landslides and shoreline erosion also play a part in reservoir dynamics (Skalak et al. 2013). Reservoir sedimentology and prevailing geomorphic processes shape various landscape units like headwater deltas, deep water ne-grained deposits and turbidity currents which are generally well characterized by Vischer and Hager (1998) and Annandale (2006) and quantied by Morris and Fan (1998) and Annandale (2006). Pal (2013) reported that in post- reservoir period, crosssectional area of the upstream reach has increased, declining velocity has reduced carrying capacity of channel, and this caused gradual aggradations of reservoir and reservoir head channel bed aggradations in Dwarka River of India. Liro (2014) constructed conceptual

   models of channel changes upstream of reservoir emphasizing hydrological characters, sediment load character, carrying capacity, river bed aggradations, terrace sedimentation, vegetation impacts, etc.

   A. Study Area

   Kushkarni River is an upper catchment tributary of Mayurakshi River situated in Birbhum district of West Bengal and Jamtara district of Jharkhand. The basin is demarcated by 23.95°N 86.8°E latitudes and 87º14º24z018º30ºE longitudes with a total area of 172 sq km (Fig. 1.). the east-west elongated basin of the 35 km long river is physio graphically situated in the eastern margin of the Chota Nagpur plateau, where the highest elevation (155 m) is seen in the western side near the source of the river and lowest elevation (62 m) is seen in the eastern side near its conuence where at present Tilpara. (Fig. 1). Maximum area of the basin is occupied by undulated topography with an average elevation of 108 meters. On an average, 120-m contour roughly demarcates upper catchment and 80-m contour delimits middle and lower catchments. Entire basin area comes under Rarh tract (Bagchi and Mukerjee 1983) with secondary laterite formation (Chak rabarty 1970) mainly carried by some of the rivers like Kushkarni coming from Chota Nagpur plateau (Jha 1996; Jha and Kapat 2003, 2009). Average slope, measured as per Wentworths method (1930), is 35 %, whereas it is \1 % in the conuence segment. Geologically 90 % of the basin area is composed of granitic gneissic rock of Pleistocene age (50 lakh years old) overlain by coarse-grained lateritic soil, and a few isolated patches covering 08 and 02 % area of the lower catchment are made with older and newer alluvium, respectively, of Holocene period over granitic basement (Fig. 1). Just below 4 km below the conuence point FarakkaMidnapore fault passes through. Average annual rainfall of this basin as gauged by Suri meteorological station is 1444.432 mm. High degree of seasonality of rainfall is reectd by 82 % rainfall during the months of June to September. Rainfall analysis since 19802013 focused that there is no signicant trend of rainfall as also indicated by linear regression model (y – 2.137x ? 5704) and coefcient of determination (R2 = 0.005). This trend is identical with the general trend of rainfall in India as estimated by many a scholars. Parthasarathy et al. (1994), Dash et al. (2007), etc. reported that in all India scale there is no signicant change in rainfall in last 110 years except few regional pockets (Sinha Ray and De 2003). Average potential evaporation of this area since 19012014 is 73.45 mm/year which indicates one of the controlling factors of surface water.

   Figure 1 Study site map showing working sites

2. MATERIAL & METHODFor land use land cover change in the conuence segment, Toposheets of US Army Map Services (No. NF 45-3; surveyed on 19221943; published on 1954), Toposheets of Survey of India (Map nos. 73 and 73 M/9, surveyed on 19681969; published on 1972), Landsat TM, ETM Image of 1992, 2002 (Path row: 139/43) and Google Earth (2015) have been used. As the toposheets have used for representing the contemporary land use, supervised classication from the landsat imageries has not been done considering the comparability of the maps. Therefore, manual digitization has been done from toposheets and Google Earth image and Landsat images mainly to see the changing water- logging condition, reservoir front island, vegetation and agricultural land, etc. After construction of Tilpara barrage, backwater created in Kushkarni River as it is infused into the reservoir. Gradually, in last 40 years, width, depth as well as cross-sectional area are being modied. To show the changes in cross-sectional area of this

   Conuence reach, such comparison is done. For doing this for contemporary period (2015), dumpy level survey has been carried out at different upstream sites of the reservoir. Cross-sectional area of just pre-reservoir period, i.e., 1968- 1969, was roughly calculated using depth and width information available from Topo sheet of Survey of India (SOI), 9711972. According to toposheet scale, width of the river is measured and average depth of contemporary survey period (19681969) of the channel is denoted in toposheet at the different river sites along river. Multiplying width of the channel with depth, cross-sectional area is roughly measured. Of course, irregular cross section is not captured in this approach, but average information is provided.

   1. Assessing spatial dynamics of backwatersInowoutow ratio of Tilpara reservoir has been calculated to predict the spatial spread of water. This value[1 does indicate water stagnation in reservoir and transgression of water through channel. Coefcient of variation (CV) of inow and outow has also calculated to determine the degree of discharge uctuation in relation to the CV of rainfall in this region (based on rainfall data of Suri

      Meteorological station). Yearly peak or maximum discharge from Massanjore dam, a prime source of water in Tilapara barrage, has been plotted to understand the probability of maximum area of spread of backwaters in Kushkarni River. Trend analysis of discharge data of different seasons has also been done to apprehend the direction of discharge change. Discharge rating curve using the data of Tilpara gauge station has been prepared to understand the control of discharge on water level as well as to determine the threshold discharge limit of maximum control. From this graph, one can also predict water level and water transgression condition in river.

   2. Detetecting channel bed aggradations and sediment successionChannel bed aggradations due to increasing residence time of water in the barrage reservoir have been measured based on the sediment characters over channel and below it. Samples soil and sand of 5 cm depth interval up to 80 cm each in six sites (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16) at channel bed have been selected (Fig. 1). Textural characteristics of each sample have been analyzed based on digital sieve shaker. The fact is that if settling time of water increases, it does mean enhanced possibility of depositing ner materials too over the channel bed (Chavez et al. 2004; Shabani and Shabani 2012). Depth of aggradations has been detected based on the textural break point. Textural break point means sudden change in textural composition. The extent of depth possesses trace ner textural composition which is recognized as deposition in post-reservoir period (1971). Channel depth reference from topo sheets and present eld measurement is also another way used for measuring extent of deposition.
   3. Submergence of confluence segmentExtent of conuence submergence, longitudinal transgression and areal spread of backwaters due to closing of gates of the barrage, etc. in post-reservoir condition have been detected based on present Google Earth satellite imageries, Landsat images after the periods of 1971 in reference to the Toposheets of Survey of India (SOI) of 19211922 and toposheets of US Army Map Services of 1951 showing pre-reservoir conditions.
   4. Reservoir front braiding analysis

   A good number of methods are available for determining braiding pattern of a channel-like braiding index (BI) of Brice (1964), braiding index of Rust (1978), braidchannel ratio of Friend and Sinha (1993), etc. Here, braiding analysis of the selected four braided reaches has been done following braidchannel ratio (BI) of Friend and Sinha (1993).

3. RESULT AND ANALYSIS
   1. Land use land cover change (LULC)In post-reservoir period, forested area in the interuves of Kushkarni and Mayurakshi rivers (Fig. 5a) has submerged and about 2-km reach of river Kushkarni is captured by reservoir domain. Reservoir front deltaic deposition as bar has started to form immediately after installing barrage (Fig. 5b) and has increased and modied over time in response to the discharge rhythm. After episodic ood 2000, thick coarse sand deposited over this island formation (Fig. 2d). Size of the bar is increased over different phases and extended in forward direction (Fig. 2e). Conuence

      segmentof the study area is submerged, and neighboring low land is converted to reservoir. In fact, a good amount of agricultural land is now under reservoir domain. Surrounding forest land turns into agricultural land. Island part and sand splay sheets are covered with long and stiff grasses. Formation of backwater triggered by reservoir is the primary cause of land use land cover alteration in this area. Subsequent changes occurred due to formation of island and regeneration of stiff grass land thereon.

   2. Channels development upstream dam reservoirSome prominent channel development parameters have been identied, have been quantied and are given in Table 2, and this will help to validate this study with idealized upstream reservoir morphology model and help to judge it in light of the existing land mark ndings by the stall wards scholars in this eld. In the long-term approach (at least 2530 years), the capacity of channels upstream of a reservoir is reduced due to swallowing and declining of channel slope. The widthdepth ratio has been increasing over time in the present study, but reverse result is reported by Xu (1990), Xu and Shi (1997) and Xu (2001a, b). Due to the increasing content of silt and clay fractions in channel forms, its erosion resistance has increased and the thread of ow has shifted toward right bank, thus causing rising channel sinuosity. Depositing ne-grained sediments on the bed forms and astride banks, vegetation cover increases as also detected by Maddock (1966) and Xu and Shi (1997) in their respective study. Accretion of sediments inside channel, wetted width and effective channel comman area is expanded. The oodplain sedimentation rate is increased. A channel of lower capacity and slope as well as of higher sinuosity formed in relatively ner sediments is a result of long-term changes which is reported by Xu (1990, 2001b) in his study.
   3. Cahnges in cross-sectional areaCross-sectional area and associated properties for 18 sites from SOI Toposheets (1972) and eld survey (2015) for prereservoir and post-reservoir periods, respectively, are given in Table 2. Width and cross-sectional area have increased in postreservoir period, and their trend has decreased toward reservoir upstream sites and this nding is very usual. Van Haveren et al. (1987) and Lu et al. (2010) have also established this fact earlier. Such width change does not reect that empowering stream and enhanced erosion is responsible for widening of channel, wetted width and river water command area. It rather highlights submergence of channel astride zones and widening of channel. But after passing through 40 years such submerged area gradually became a channel-like natural shape.

      Figure 2 Comparative pattern of width in pre- and post-reservoir conditions.

      From table 2, widening of channel after barrage construction can clearly be understood. This rate decreases upstream and becomes almost zero at 4.5 km upstream from reservoir site (Fig. 2.)

      Table 1 State of research on the channels upstream dam reservoir.

   4. The changes in the longitudinal profile of riverThe maximum water level in a reservoir determines the maximum backwater extent in the longitudinal prole of a river (Leopold et al. 1964). However, the changes will not occur at the same time in the whole backwater area. This results from different frequencies of occurrence of water levels of a specied height that cause changes in a specied backwater reach. In this study, it is observed that 6- to 8-m rise of water in Tilpara reservoir transgresses water up to 4 km, 4- to 5-m rise extends water up to 2.1 km and 2- to 3- m rise extends water up to 1.4 km upstream of the reservoir site. Channel bed aggradation in reservoir after condition has raised the bed level of channel (Fig. 5). This rate of deposition declines upstream. Inux of water volume is not reduced, but raising of river bed level has been creating possibility of further transgression of water upstream and usually, it is also conveyed by the bank dwellers who experience this in their day-to-day life.

      Table 2 Characteristics of channel development. Source:

      Tabulated based on authors investigation

   5. Change in load characters

   Reservoirs lock in the entire bed load and a fraction of the suspended load carried by a river. The most palpable effect of this is loss of reservoir capacity, as the reservoir lls with

   Figure 3 Depth wise distribution of sand diameter 125 lm at different upstream sites of Tilpara reservoir

   Sediment (Kondolf et al. 2014). If the backwater effect is strong, reservoir size is relatively small sediment deposition which extends quite upstream of the river (Kummu et al. 2010) and it is happened in the present study. So, the nature of load entrains in this particular reach actually plays vital role for modifying load characters. Volume of load is the function of stream energy and geomaterials of the basin. Discharge and slope of the channel highly control stream energy. Average energy level in post-reservoir condition in different seasons has attenuated signicantly, and it is principally due to declining trend of slope and lowering of velocity. Increasing inow at Tilpara reservoir from Massanjore dam inversely related to sediment load in river Kushkarni. Sediment rating curve (Fig. 3.) shows discharge strongly controls volume of suspended sediment load. Dominant samples show that about 1000 g/s suspended sediment load passes through this channel. High water volume existing in Tilpara reservoir resists free sediment trespassing of load in spite of burly increase in discharge. Arresting velocity in this condition is mainly responsible for it. In monsoon season, maximum sediment is found in river. In monsoon season, stream energy is reduced from 2582.3 to 999.6 Wm-1. So such massive loss of energy level in

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   bends where sediment drops off by the river and backwater. Most of the features and process evolution are noticed in the case of the

   ACKNOWLEDGMENT

   This study explores the impact of tilpara barrage on backwater reach of Kushkarni River, the authors express their sincere gratitude to Mr. Rajit Ram Singh, Mr. Ajay Singh, and Mr. Yasir Abbas for their support and motivation. They also extend their thanks to IJERT team for valuable comments and suggestions

   Figure 4 land use land cover map of 1954, 1972, 1992, and

   2002, respectively

4. CONCLUSION

Validation is done always for investigating whether the system runs ideally. If it is ideal what will the forward and backward effects of it? If not, what sorts of discrepancies exist thereon with their cognitive consequences? In the river-dominated interaction reach, the river experiences the beginning of backwater effects. Water velocity slows and the coarsest material is deposited. With peak discharges reduced due to dam operations, this material is not transported and is deposited on the outside of the main river channel (forming bank-attached islands) and this usual situation has developed on the left side of the river Kushkarni. Over time the size of such deposited land is increasing. Further downstream, large amounts of sediment accumulate in the Reservoir-Dominated Interaction reach and ll in the historical thalweg resulting in accumulation on the ooded banks. This phenomenon, in fact, has been reducing the water retaining the capacity of the reservoir. The inundation, in turn, is caused additional backwater effects upstream resulting in additional inlling. The exact location of these processes used to shift substantially longitudinally due to uctuating levels of Tilpara reservoir and upstream dam discharges. The kind of channel development process in the backwater as stated by many of the scholars mentioned in Table 1 is quite identical except few of the parameters (vide Table 2). Skalak et al. have put forwarded one idealized model for inter-dam morphology. He identied three distinct zones, namely (1) reservoir segment: characterized by spread of water in associated lowland and gradual sedimentation with varying degree,

(2) river dominated transitional: characterized by inundated scroll bars, large tree die off (cyclical due to changing reservoir water level) and (3) river-dominated transitional: characterized by formation of large islands on the outside of

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